English 211: Fiction
Lecture 1: The Beginnings of the Novel
In this class, we will study the history and development of the novel in English, so we will read both English and American novels. Unfortunately, since novels are long and our time is short, we'll only be able to read a few, so I've tried to choose novels that are representative of the time periods in which they were written. There are, of course, thousands of others.
Development of the Novel
For hundreds of years, stories were told, not read. In times when writing had not yet been invented, or later, in cultures where only a few had access to education, information was passed on orally. This encouraged the use of verse, since everything had to be memorized, and the memory is aided by rhyme and rhythm (think how much easier it is to memorize a song than it is to memorize anything in prose).
Even after writing was invented, for centuries, in Europe at least, it was reserved for a select few: those wealthy enough to afford education or those trained by the Catholic Church to do its work. This meant that writing was limited mostly to pieces with religious significance. Medieval monks created "illuminated" manuscripts: handwritten copies of religious texts which are beautifully illustrated and decorated. These are works of art, meant not for general consumption but to glorify God and preserve His word.
Even those few works not produced by the Church in the Middle Ages mostly relate to religion. There were few plays, but those that existed were performed only to teach specific religious and moral lessons; their characters were "types"--that is, they were meant to represent a specific idea or kind of person, without any individuation. Later, as society began to expand, so did art: it became acceptable, by the Renaissance, to write in languages other than Latin, and it also became acceptable to write about subjects other than religion--but moral lessons still had to be clearly taught, and Church and government censors strictly enforced the status quo. A writer like Shakespeare could portray a character who was evil, and could even create sympathy for that character--but in the end, the character had to come to a bad end. Writers found ways to be subversive and work around the censors, of course, and part of the fun of reading Shakespeare, Marlowe, and others is seeing how innovative and subtle they could be in simultaneously upholding and undermining the status quo.
The first novel in English was Robinson Crusoe, and that appeared 1719.
As with all historical movements and literary genres, there is debate about the novel as an art form. Did it begin in England, with Robinson Crusoe, or were there earlier works of literature in other languages which can be defined as novels? Some argue that the novel began as early as the ancient Greeks; others claim it began with the novellas of Italy in the 14th century; yet others say the first novels were Spanish: Lazarillo de Tormes in 1554 and Don Quixote in 1605.
These arguments can't be resolved here. But whether Robinson Crusoe is the first novel, or just the first English novel, it did not merely appear out of thin air. It is a product of all of the other works that came before it: the epic poems of the middle ages, the French and Italian novellas and romances, the Arthurian cycle, the plays of Shakespeare and Marlowe and the Ancient Greeks and Romans--all of these contributed.
There is also debate about how to define the novel as a genre, of course, but there is general agreement on a number of characteristics:
- First and foremost, a novel is written in prose rather than in verse, and is an extended narrative (that just means it's long).
- It presents individualized characters, rather than types.
- Characters are presented in a specific time and place, and their environment is described in realistic, detailed terms.
- The characters and situations presented are fictional rather than historical.
All of this may sound obvious to us, but until novels first appeared, prose writing had not generally been used to present fiction. It was reserved for essays and journalism. Daniel Defoe, in fact, made his living as a journalist.
A number of social conditions made the rise of the novel in England possible. The first was the Protestant Reformation. I'm going to drastically oversimplify an entire historical movement here, so please forgive me. But for literary purposes, the importance of the Reformation cannot be underestimated. The leaders of the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther and John Calvin, rejected, among other things, the hierarchy of the Catholic Church. They argued that people did not need intermediaries to talk to God for them: they could do that for themselves. They didn't need to go to a priest to confess their sins or receive absolution, for example; they could pray directly to God on their own behalf. The state of a person's soul was between him and God, not between him and the Church.
Their argument had huge implications, among them the idea that the individual was independent of the group and more important than the group. This made the novel possible, because it made it possible for people to see a character not as a representative of a larger idea, but as simply an individual, with his own unique quirks, strengths, flaws, conflicts, triumphs, and failures, just as they saw themselves. It made it possible for readers to identify with a character, rather than just learn from him. (Ironically, the more individual a character is, the more universal he becomes...but that's a discussion for another day.)
It also made it possible for any character--not just noblemen or religious figures--to be important enough to occupy the central place in a story. The novel is, in some ways, a democratic form, assuming as it does that anyone can be of interest to an audience.
Another social condition that made the rise of the novel possible was the expansion of exploration and the resulting expansion of trade. As exploration opened up parts of the world that had previously been unknown to Europeans, and as trade expanded, social changes began to accelerate. Trade and exploration opened economic opportunities and created social mobility for people who would previously have been locked into a rigid class structure for their entire lives. This, along with the change in religious values, made it more acceptable to question the social order and the status quo, a vital component of novels.
The expansion of exploration and trade, along with the resulting expansion in science, mathematics, and knowledge of all kinds, placed more of an emphasis on secular rather than spiritual life. This also helped make the novel possible, since the novel presents a character in a realistic, detailed light, one which explores the effect of his environment on his personality, as well as the effect of his personality on his environment. Prose no longer needed to limit itself to teaching spiritual lessons; it could address any aspect of a character's life.
But perhaps the biggest leap made by the novel was the idea that prose could blur the line between fiction and reality. A fictional character, drawn well, can seem as real as any of the people we know in real life. Even when their situation is completely different from ours, we can identify with them. And this experience can be valuable in and of itself: we may indeed learn from a novel, but that is not its purpose. Its purpose is to let us slip for a time into the life of another person.
Daniel Defoe and Robinson Crusoe
Daniel Defoe was born in 1660 in London to Alice and James Foe, a tallow-chandler. When he was only two years old, his family became Dissenters; that is, they left the Church of England, which was the officially approved church of England, and became Presbyterians. This was no small decision; Dissenters faced a great deal of persecution and discrimination.
In 1665, when Daniel was 5, the Great Plague of London swept the city, killing over 100,000 people, nearly 20% of London's population. In 1666, when he was 6, the Great Fire of London gutted the city. And two years later, in 1668, his mother died.
Defoe was educated at Rev. James Fisher's school at Dorking, Surrey; he then attended an academy for Dissenters run by Rev. Charles Morton at Newington Green, in preparation for a ministerial career. But he never became a minister: by 1683, he was an established merchant, living in Cornhill near the Royal Exchange. In 1684, he married Mary Tuffley; they eventually had 7 children.
Defoe prospered in business as a hosiery trader and importer of wine and tobacco; he also insured ships. He traveled in England and Europe and began publishing political tracts in support of King William III, as well.
But in 1692, he was declared bankrupt.
By 1695, he was using the name "De Foe," and was working as a manager of the royal lotteries. However, the death of William and the accession of Anne to the throne in 1702 ended his hopes of preferment. He wrote the bitterly satirical essay, "The Shortest Way With Dissenters," in which he sarcastically attacked High Church officials. In response, the Tory ministry had him arrested, tried, and convicted of sedition, and he was sentenced to stand in the pillory for three days. Defiantly, Defoe wrote "A Hymn to the Pillory" and read it to the crowds as he was pilloried; they were in sympathy with him and drank toasts to his health, rather than abusing him. But his public triumph was shortlived; while he was in prison, his factory failed and he was plunged into bankruptcy again.
Robert Harley, then Speaker of the House of Commons, interceded in his behalf and secured his release from prison; in return, Defoe served several administrations as a spy. Over the next few years, he published a number of political tracts and journals.
In 1719, Defoe published Robinson Crusoe. Over the next 10 years, he wrote over 12 more books, including Moll Flanders, A Journal of the Plague Year, and The Fortunate Mistress (Roxana).
Defoe died in 1731 of a stroke.
According to one of his biographers, James Sutherland, Defoe was a very religious man. He was also a shrewd businessman. But he was an adventurer as well, and was always taking risks with his money, life, and liberty. His political writings were often imprudent. Defoe was easily bored and loved excitement and intrigue; he was happiest when he was spying for Robert Harley or creating controversy with his political writing. Thus, he spent a good deal of his time in hiding, either from political enemies or creditors.
Robinson Crusoe was Defoe's first novel, and the first novel written in English. It may have been inspired by the real life adventures of several castaways, including Alexander Selkirk, but Defoe departs from reality to create a unique character and deliberately manipulates the various elements of the novel to explore several themes.
One obvious theme is addressed when Crusoe gives a brief explanation of the source of his name in the first paragraph. He says his name was originally Robinson "Kreutznaer," which, translated fron the German, means "drawing near to the cross." He goes on to say that "by the usual corruption of words in English" his name is now Crusoe. Crusoe is corrupt himself in the beginning, and only "draws near to the Cross" later in the novel. Some critics suggest that Crusoe's travails are analogous to man's fall into sin and his later redemption.
The theme of solitude is also explored, but again critics disagree on interpretation. Is Defoe simply drawing a contrast between man's need for the company of others and his need for solitude, or might he be arguing that man is isolated in sin, even in the midst of society?
Critics have noted also Crusoe's strange passivity: he seldom makes choices for himself, but allows himself to be carried along by events. Is his inability to act a sign of his trust in whatever God has placed in his path, or is it a sign that he is immobilized by his rebellion and disobedience?
Other critics don't focus on Crusoe's passivity; Ian Watt sees him instead as a "triumph of human achievement and enterprise," while J. Paul Hunter sees Crusoe as a religious and moral "guide" who shows us the consequences of filial disobedience and disobedience to God.
The possible themes and interpretations are numerous...and so are the remakes. Think of the book Swiss Family Robinson and the many movies adapted from it; think of the movie Cast Away; think of the tv show Lost. For whatever reason, the story still strikes a chord in modern audiences.
If you'd like more information on any of the topics covered in this lecture, go to the Links page. Enjoy!
The information in this lecture was derived from the following sources:
1. Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel, 1957.
2. J. Paul Hunter, The Reluctant Pilgrim, 1966.
3. Maximillian E. Novak, Daniel Defoe: Master of Fictions, 2003.
4. James Sutherland, Defoe, 1950
